A total return swap is a swap agreement in which one party makes payments based on a set rate, either fixed or variable, while the other party makes payments based on the return of an underlying asset, which includes both the income it generates and any capital gains. In total return swaps, the underlying asset, referred to as the reference asset, is usually an equity index, a basket of loans, or bonds. The asset is owned by the party receiving the set rate payment.
Tit for tat is a game-theory strategy subject to a payoff matrix like that of a prisoner’s dilemma. Tit for tat was introduced by Anatol Rapoport, who developed a strategy in which each participant in an iterated prisoner’s dilemma follows a course of action consistent with his opponent’s previous turn. For example, if provoked, a player subsequently responds with retaliation; if unprovoked, the player cooperates.
An underwater mortgage is a home purchase loan with a higher principal than the free-market value of the home. This situation can occur when property values are falling. In an underwater mortgage, the homeowner may not have any equity available for credit. An underwater mortgage can potentially prevent a borrower from refinancing or selling the home unless they have the cash to pay the loss out of pocket.
A 51% attack refers to an attack on a blockchain—most commonly bitcoins, for which such an attack is still hypothetical—by a group of miners controlling more than 50% of the network’s mining hash rate or computing power.
The Internal Revenue Code (IRC) refers to Title 26 of the U.S. Code, the official consolidation and codification of the general and permanent laws of the United States, as the Code’s preface explains.1 Commonly referred to as the IRS code or IRS tax code, the laws in Title 26 are enforced by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS).2 The United States Code was first published in 1926 by the U.S. House of Representatives.1 Title 26 covers all relevant rules pertaining to income, gift, estate, sales, payroll, and excise taxes.2
Portfolio management is the art and science of selecting and overseeing a group of investments that meet the long-term financial objectives and risk tolerance of a client, a company, or an institution.
The Heston Model, named after Steve Heston, is a type of stochastic volatility model used by financial professionals to price European options.
Gamma is the rate of change in an option’s delta per 1-point move in the underlying asset’s price. Gamma is an important measure of the convexity of a derivative’s value, in relation to the underlying. A delta hedge strategy seeks to reduce gamma in order to maintain a hedge over a wider price range. A consequence of reducing gamma, however, is that alpha will also be reduced.
Health insurance is a type of insurance coverage that pays for medical, surgical, and sometimes dental expenses incurred by the insured. Health insurance can reimburse the insured for expenses incurred from illness or injury, or pay the care provider directly. It is often included in employer benefit packages as a means of enticing quality employees, with premiums partially covered by the employer but often also deducted from employee paychecks. The cost of health insurance premiums is deductible to the payer, and the benefits received are tax-free.
A defined-benefit plan is an employer-sponsored retirement plan where employee benefits are computed using a formula that considers several factors, such as length of employment and salary history. The company administers portfolio management and investment risk of the plan. There are also restrictions on when and by what method an employee can withdraw funds without penalties. Benefits paid are typically guaranteed for life and rise slightly to account for the increased cost of living.